Sichuan Province Earthquake Effects On Tourism Tourism Essay

Sichuan Province Earthquake Effects On Tourism Essay Sichuan region is situated in the Sichuans level in the inland of Southwest China; it is regularly alluded to as the place where there is bounty. It has a huge domain and wealthy in assets and is one of the most ethnically various territories in China. This territory has a few memorable and social locales and other normal and synthetic vacation destination destinations. The fascination destinations and the well known Sichuan cooking typically portrayed by hot flavor, and exceptional magnificence make the territory a wonderland that pulls in a huge number of voyagers from everywhere throughout the world. Sichuan is likewise a significant mechanical area in China; the territory has both overwhelming and light businesses. Plans were in progress of forming this area into a cutting edge modern focus. An enormous seismic tremor, the celebrated Wenchuan Earthquake with a greatness of 8.0 on the Richter scale, hit western Sichuan, China in 2008. As per official figures, discharged 65,185 individuals were affirmed dead. More than 68,636 of them were from Sichuan region, roughly 374,171 of others were accounted for harmed and scores of others missing. A large number of individuals were left destitute and a great deal of private and open property annihilated, the monetary misfortune caused was approximated to be over  ¥ 1,000 billion. The tremor amazingly influenced every single financial part in the shudder hit territories and the travel industry was no exemption. Investigation of the effects of the shake on the travel industry upgrades the speculation of the travel industry and all the more fundamentally filling in as the reason for arranging and policymaking. Issue articulation The seismic tremor is accepted to have slaughtered 54 voyagers in Sichuan territory. During the period, more than ten thousand vacationers were abandoned and more than 30 flights and 300 vehicles used to empty them. The traveler business lost over $ 7.24 billion in the seismic tremor. With respect to the commitment of the travel industry to the districts economy, there have been significant recreation endeavors after the seismic tremor. Dangerous calamities, for example, the Boxing Day wave in the Indian Ocean (2004), Hurricane Katrina (2005), the Wenchuan Earthquake (2008), the Samoan tidal wave (2009), and the Haiti seismic tremor (2010) have of late put the spotlight on cataclysmic events, with ongoing TV film screening the situations as they develop. Global media issue admonitions to visitors to remain away, while neighborhood economies experience quick and far reaching impacts from the loss of the travel industry profit, and bear numerous long periods of vulnerability before an arrival to anything taking after ordinary business activity. The travel industry goals are exceptionally delicate to interference by catastrophic events since the travel industry tasks are dependent on working basic framework, including power, sewage, correspondences and water; helps which are definitely harmed and upset for a delayed period following a harming occasion (Ritchie 2009). Stream on impacts from catastrophes additionally incorporate huge interruption to the gracefully and dissemination chains of even the most arranged organizations (Lee Harrald 1999). Financial misfortunes are owing to a decrease in harm to foundation (Laws et al. 2007). The interdependencies of the travel industry have been one of its incredible qualities, permitting it to quickly grow and expand. Nonetheless, cataclysmic events can deliver prompt, falling disappointments inside the travel industry area that can resound inside networks and nations for a long time and years. This examination features physical and social effects of enormous size tremors. As per Sichuans nearby media, remaking in the Sichuan the travel industry area has been isolated into three levels. The underlying stage was attempting to draw in the household sightseers to the shudder hit territories, trailed by concentrating on neighborhood the travel industry endeavors to reestablish worldwide the travel industry showcase. At long last resuscitating the whole the travel industry part by or after the year 2010 and make it the main segment in the area. This quake influenced the potential travelers discernments on the Sichuan the travel industry many despite everything feel that the goal isn't sufficiently sheltered to visit. The Sichuans the travel industry organization needs to spend an extensive financial plan to persuade the potential visitors that the spot is sheltered to travel and that the attractions are still as engaging as they were before the shake. Goals of the Research Study The primary target of this examination is to research the potential voyagers recognitions towards the Sichuan the travel industry after the quake. This investigation has not been completed there offering ascend to the information hole that should be filled. The discoveries from this examination will fill this information hole and add to the present writing. Discoveries from this examination will likewise be exceptionally critical in distinguishing the determinants that can be changed to structure the best techniques so as to pull in more voyagers and fulfill their requirements. The Sichuan the travel industry is relied upon to improve benefits and create systems to draw in likely vacationers and cause them to feel good in Sichuan. Explicitly the target of this examination is to help comprehend the potential voyagers discernment towards the post-quake Sichuan the travel industry, and figure out what components are viewed as noteworthy by the potential sightseers needing to make a trip to Sichuan. Applied system Scott, N. Laws, E. (2005). The travel industry emergencies and catastrophes: Enhancing comprehension of framework impacts. Diary of Travel Tourism Marketing, vol. 19, (3), pp. 151-160. The applied system above expresses a lot of complete qualities for calamity the board techniques, to the advantage of the travel industry organizations and goal authorities. This model follows a direct emergency method that is pre-occasion, crisis, middle of the road, recuperation and goals. It goes further to give bits of knowledge to effectively helping the travel industry and the legislature in setting up debacle the executives techniques. Vital execution contain catastrophe correspondence and control, partner joint effort and asset the board. The travel industry ought to gain from encounters, for example, the Sichuan seismic tremor. Crafted by crisis associations just as the travel industry associations become essential, while that of the travel industry ventures is generally less basic during pre-or post emergency periods. Writing REVIEW 2.1. Recorded foundation of issue zone The travel industry in the region represented 8% of province total national output before the quake (Lim, 2009). The seismic tremor cost Sichuan area US$7 billion in lost the travel industry income (Zhiling Xianyu 2009). Rather than the outcomes of the Chi-Chi tremor, the travel industry to the territory bounced back in under a year as household guests ran to see territories crushed by the shudder (Lim, 2009). Government interest in the travel industry in the district would like to take advantage of the tremor the travel industry wonder, with work as of now occurring on the development of various seismic tremor exhibition halls in the region, and a shudder help preparing focus in Beichuan (Zhiling Xianyu 2008; Lim 2009). Neighborhood authorities would like to build the travel industry income to as much as 20% of local GDP. One nearby Beichuan man depicts his emotions about the quake; the seismic tremor was a calamity, however it will be useful for the traveler business (Lim 2009). Th e movement inspirations of residential Chinese travelers incorporate watching the intensity of nature, to offer their appreciation to the dead, and to be helped to remember the fragility of life (Liu 2009). As indicated by different online news reports, upwards of 19 million travelers visited Sichuan territory during the National Day festivities this year (Global Times 2009). The matter of tremor the travel industry, it appears, is blasting in crushed pieces of the epicentral district. The travel industry calamity the board The travel industry is an intentional and peacetime action, is entirely powerless to inconsistencies brought about by outside situations that may bargain the traveler experience (Santana, 2003). Given that observation is reality in the travel industry, a negative picture results from a calamity of any sort, regardless of whether indefensible, and will impede possible sightseers and lead to negative purchasing conduct. Globalization uncovered the travel industry to more noteworthy political, monetary, social, and innovative changes (Ritchie, 2004). In the mean time, the butterfly impact further amplifies little scope emergencies in a single piece of the world to different parts. Models can be found among past occasions, paying little heed to type, for example, the Wenchuan Earthquake with a size of 8.0 on the Richter scale, hit western Sichuan, China in 2008, and the 2004 Indian Ocean wave (Santana, 2003). The negative effect of emergencies on the travel industry is increasingly notew orthy among goals that are exceptionally dependent on the travel industry as their significant wellspring of income. The world has become progressively calamity inclined (Coombs, 1999: Richardson, 1994) and all the monetary segments are on the edge of tumult, Fink contends (1986), Researchers have given numerous definitions to emergency. Faulkner (2001) fought that emergencies are prompted by inside variables, or activities or inactions of the associations, though calamities are by outside powers, involving common marvels. Stafford, Yu, and Armoo (2002) further characterized outer elements into physical, social, and human condition. As per them catastrophic events like those that seismic tremors and innovative disappointments are subsidiary with emergencies in the previous circumstance, and encounters, pandemics and war are aligned with emergencies in the last circumstance. Outside guests fulfillment Hartman built up a consumer loyalty idea in 1993 that comprises of three builds: the psychological, full of feeling, and fundamental (Hartman, 1993). Consumer loyalty is characterized by clients post-buy evaluation of administration conveyed and examination of clients desires and the real help understanding (Hunt 2007).This idea was additionally refined as the anticipation disconfirmation worldview by

Disguise Is Often Presented as a Cruel and Painful Practice. to What Extent Do You Agree That Disguise Is Used to Create Comic Moments in Twelfth Night free essay sample

What exactly degree do you concur that mask is utilized to make comic minutes in twelfth night? Shakespeare joins the procedure of mask in the twelfth night to make comedic components in the play; anyway some may contend that the idea of camouflage is regularly pitiless as it makes disarray and confusions that could prompt genuine outcomes. In Shakespearian occasions the job of ladies was limited to as a rule their own homes and this was the situation on the phase in Shakespeare’s plays. The entirety of the entertainers were men even in the ladies jobs. This could be one of the primary methods of camouflage that Shakespeare utilized that could depict parody as a man in a female job is comedic in any case, it additionally puts across disarray particularly in plays like the twelfth night where characters like Viola assumes a job as a male persona. Viola is the principle and evident component of camouflage in the twelfth night. She makes the comic part of the play as emotional incongruity is portrayed in light of the fact that none of the characters realize that Cesario, the individual who she has made through her camouflage, is actually a lady. Her character makes a kind of adoration triangle between her, Olivia and Orsino yet she can uncover nothing in dread of uncovering her personality, â€Å"whoe’er I charm, myself would be his wife† (Act 1 Scene 4). The barbarous and difficult practice is revealed through this as Olivia doesn’t realize that the individual she is succumbing to is in actuality a ladies and Viola can do nothing to tell her this, driving Olivia on into something that can’t occur. This is additionally the situation with Viola as she can’t declare her affection for Orsino. Shakespeare makes torment primarily in the brain of Viola as the destiny is at last in her grasp yet the camouflage has limited her. The imperative of her character is an issue or seemingly the comedic side of the twelfth night. In act 3 scene 4 Sir Toby make a duel between Sir Andrew and Viola against both their wills, â€Å"Sir Andrew and Viola draw their swords†. The mask has conflicted with her as all the on looking characters accept that Sir Andrew is battling a man when it is really a lady which nobody would think about reasonable, another case of where the concealed personality prompts a savage practice. The possibility of Viola taking on the appearance of a man in any case could likewise be viewed as a coldblooded practice as it shows that she knows that her being a ladies she might be dismissed socially which is the reason she takes on the mask in any case, this features the man centric culture in Shakespearian occasions that thinks about the play. Malvolio is another character who takes on a type of mask in the expectation of satisfying the alleged wishes of his woman Olivia, â€Å"I thank my stars, I am cheerful! I will be peculiar, strong, in yellow stockings, and cross gartered, even with the quickness of putting on. Jove and my stars be applauded! † (Act 2 Scene 5). Maria, Sir Toby, Sir Andrew and Feste all stunt Malvolio into wearing the garments that woman Olivia abhors and Malvolio being innocent and pompous succumbs to this. The result was intended to be comedic for Maria and her companions and the crowd likewise share the giggles essentially due to absurdity of Malvolio and the new dress sense he takes. The manner by which this satire came to fruition in any case, originated from an extremely vindictive arrangement coordinated by Maria as the possibility of slyness was included which caused Malvolio to accept that Lady Olivia cherishes him. The crowd who additionally share the satire can’t help yet feel a type of regret for Malvolio. Malvolio putting on the cross gartered yellow socks lead him to being taken care of in the supposed jail. Feste plays the job of Sir Topas the minister so as to deceive Malvolio into imagining that he has gone crazy, â€Å"Sir Topas the clergyman, who drops by Malvolio the lunatic† (Act 4 Scene 2). The room where Malvolio is secured in is dull so he couldn’t check whether it were really Sir Topas despite the fact that we know it isn’t. Feste didn’t need to take the mask of Sir Topas but instead simply solid like him, this shows the impact of a camouflage as he decides to dress like the cleric to potentially get into character to depict the character all the more unmistakably. This is extremely merciless as Feste utilizes deceit and disarray to demonstrate Malvolio to be something he’s not and furthermore cause him to accept that a Priest is counseling him. At last the method of camouflage is regularly used to make a shrouded personality and disarray between characters, Shakespeare in any case, utilizes this strategy to make comic components also. As raised before we find that the sexual disarray love triangle between Olivia, Orsino and the Viola/Cesario character makes parody. Olivia as we probably am aware succumbs to Cesario who’s a ladies, however we likewise find that Orsino might be pulled in to Cesario as it were, in plain terms this is satisfactory as she’s a ladies yet he tends to her as a male which brings up the issue of what Shakespeare is attempting to diagram. This is indicated â€Å"That state thou craftsmanship a man: Dianas lip Is not progressively smooth and rubious; thy little channel Is as the ladies organ, high pitched and sound, And everything is semblative a womans part† (Act 1 Scene 4). Shakespeare might be attempting to accomplish something more than parody by saying that mask may bring out different components. The other part of satire was investigated when Malvolio was deceived by the letter into wearing the mask which thusly caused the detainment of him, which could then be contended is an excruciating practice. The camouflage of Viola likewise causes the coldblooded treating of Antonio as he professes to have been with Viola/Cesario for 3 months and that they were together when they went to the town and Orsino and Viola unmistakably realize that she has been working with Orsino, the disarray among Viola and Sebastian on account of the mask is clear; â€Å"Today, my master and for a quarter of a year prior to no int’rim, not a minute’s opening, both day and night did we keep company† (Act 5 Scene 1). At the point when all masks from Viola’s to Feste’s and the purpose for Malvolio’s camouflage is completely uncovered Shakespeare indeed brings request after totally had gone off to some far away place. There is no comic factor when everything is uncovered yet there is in actuality a feeling of distress for Malvolio as everybody is glad separated from him. This could show that there is no encouraging points in mask and in the end it will prompt a brutal consummation for this situation Malvolio endured the outcomes.

how to choose your major

how to choose your major So you dont know what to major in. You have no idea what to do with your life and youre kind of interested in a lot of things and everything is so cool but also you have to pick something. Or else. *ominous music* Choosing between the forty-nine majors that MIT offers can be a nerve-wracking, sweat-inducing mess. We the admissions bloggers have somehow done it,  and weve  told you  all about  it. So whats the deal? This art piece (complete with snapchat filter) has the answer. This project began in  Credit For Reddit, when Alyssa and I baked a bajillion cookies and enticed people to come talk to us about their majors. We spoke with fifteen MIT undergrads and found out that people tended to use certain frameworks for describing their majors. As they munched on cookies, they told us about how they thought they would major in something, but then realized that another major was their true calling. And there were descriptions that people tended to use about their majors and the people in their majors; course 6 (EECS) is big and course 17 (political science) is small. Most people know what course 2 is (mechanical engineering), but most people dont know what course 1 is (civil/environmental engineering). Someone was choosing between two majors, and eliminated one because they dont like coding. Someone expressed frustration that their major is associated with making and building things, but that that stereotype doesnt encompass the whole picture. The way that stud ents identify or categorize majors and integrate it into their self-identity was so delightfully complex that we wrote a whole paper about it. And that was only fifteen students. We didnt have time to interview more people (that could be an entire thesis project in itself) so we took some of the patterns from our interviews and rendered it into a nifty yarn-based survey-tool-cum-participatory-art-installation for our final project. What youre looking at is a rendering of my teams Credit For Reddit final project  (click for hi-res), in which we asked a bunch of MIT students to say some things about themselves and their majors by visualizing it on a very large piece of plywood. Each string represents one students major, and represents the answers to six prompts based on the interviews we did. 1. Once upon a time, I thought I would be [what major? undecided?]. 2. I will be graduating as [what major? still dont know?] 3. This major is [big? small? skip this question?] 4. Most people know what this major is. [True? False? Skip this question?] 5. People in my major are [coders? problem-solvers? makers and builders? humanities? skip this question?] 6. Tell us more. [optional note card] Every blue string represents a student and their major. Double-majors used two white strings each, one for each of their majors. Youll realize that horizontal lines in the first column represent people who always thought they would major in their major, and diagonal lines represent people who are majoring in something they didnt originally think they would. People tend to think Course 6 and Course 2 are big majors, Course 1 and 3 are small majors, and a lot of other majors are thought of as big or small depending on who you ask. And if a major is big, it doesnt necessarily mean people know what it isor vice versa. What was most surprising to us was that most people categorized their majors as either makers/builders or problem-solvers, with few people identifying their major as coders or humanities (though we suspect we just didnt get a lot of humanities majors). All told, 62 MIT undergraduates are represented on this board, showing only a small slice of the student body and the confu sion we go through to associate ourselves by department number (visualized below). Ill leave you with one more excerpt from our work: Choosing a major, just like becoming an adult, is an iterative learning process. Our interviewees explained how they came to a stronger understanding of their identity and dealt with conflicts between their identity and the identity suggested by their major or by the choices they made. Major choice seems to matter less as an expression of identity than we had originally expected. Instead, the process of choosing a major often illuminates aspects of a person’s identity that they hadn’t expected to find; for others, however, it is a reinforcement of the way they see themselves. Certainly major choice and identity are intertwined, but it is perhaps the integral process of self-definition, invisible most of the time behind mundane problems and decisions, that truly drives our quest to find our closest-to-perfect majors and, we hope, the best approximations of our perfect selves. Sohow should you choose your major? Maybe try  this BuzzFeed quiz. Ive been enlightened. Someday Ill tell you about my experience with WGS.111, Gender and Media Studiesbut thats a post for a later day. If youre interested in more details, check out our full reports: part 1: interviews part 2: yarn art hi-res rendering of the board or if youre ever at MIT, wander around the comparative media studies office on the third floor of the Media Lab (E15), where the board is on display.

Utilitarianism Essays The Happiest And Pleasure Of The...

The unsound of utilitarianism The utilitarianism theory is described as the happiest and pleasure of the most people not included the personal happiness. Jeremy Bentham believes there were two masters in this world that are pleasure and pain. On utilitarianism, we should reject pain and found a way to make more people happy no matter what the outcome. Utilitarianism is unsound because of events in history, life conflict, and animal cruelty that occurs in our everyday. All thru history, it has shown us that utilitarianism has been a part of us, even when they are just stories. It has made us understand that occasionally we but the happiness of a crowd, no matter the individual that gets hurt will in the process. Even if it is killing a woman or a group of people everything is for the greater pleasure. To give you an example, on the bible there is a story that involves a woman who was a prostitute and this woman was going to be stoned to death by the village because it was permitted by the law. This story is still relatable because it is still happening and it is legal in some countries where they stone women for the smallest crimes. In Pakistan, there is a documentary about Arifa Bibi a mother of two, who was murdered for having a cell phone and the men that did this crime were protected by the law. Under utilitarianism the law of this country was morality correct. stoning a woman will be right if it brings the most happiness to people. Not taking in consideration theShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesSociology 14 †¢ Anthropology 14 There Are Few Absolutes in OB 14 Challenges and Opportunities for OB 15 Responding to Economic Pressures 15 †¢ Responding to Globalization 16 †¢ Managing Workforce Diversity 18 †¢ Improving Customer Service 18 †¢ Improving People Skills 19 †¢ Stimulating Innovation and Change 20 †¢ Coping with â€Å"Temporariness† 20 †¢ Working in Networked Organizations 20 †¢ Helping Employees Balance Work–Life Conflicts 21 †¢ Creating a Positive Work Environment 22 †¢ Improving Ethical Behavior 22

Performance Self Evaluation Essay - 1768 Words

Introduction: In this paper I critically reflect on five different self-assessments: locus of control (LOC), emotional intelligence (EI), listening self-inventory, team member type and conflict management. Throughout my discussion, I focus on their correlations and apply the gathered information to my work-life experiences. I will also provide a systematic assessment of each of these questionnaires. This evaluation will address any possible weaknesses I had found within the tests and prepare my final conclusions based upon those final educated results. Locus of Control Emotional Intelligence Relationship: I scored moderate on the LOC, (specifically internal LOC) and EI assessments. When evaluating these two tests I found a†¦show more content†¦When I look back to rough days they were generally caused because I would blame an alternative to myself. For example, in my business 100 project we had one member who would not help. I was frustrated and attributed him for our poor mark. I now know I should have fired him and split up his work with the rest of the team instead of leaving it to last minute. I should have taken control of my own fate and reasoned with the emotions I was feeling at that moment. Today I feel that I have a much stronger EI and my LOC is improving subsequently. Critical Discussion on the Emotional Intelligence Self-Assessment: The correlation between these two surveys was clearly apparent and understandable. However, I believe my moderate score in EI in the workplace is actually quite low. Working at a pharmacy for over two and half years I feel that I have maintained a very high level of EI as per Mayer et al’s (2003) definition: â€Å"set of skills concerned with the processing of emotion-relevant information and measured with ability-based scales† (p. 97). I have been extremely fustrated at times but I have always kept my composure in front of the customers. Almost all of our clientel is coming to pick up medication for their depression, sickness, pain and/or anger symptoms. Thus, the people in good mindsets are few and far between. I started this job wanting to become a pharmacist but after working in this environment I knew that was not anShow MoreRelatedSelf Evaluation Motivates Performance Essay654 Words   |  3 PagesSelf Evaluation Motivates Performance To demonstrate that the potential for self-evaluation can motivate performance, the potential for evaluation by external sources must be eliminated. As Bandura (1986) writes, When environmental constraints are reduced, the influence of self-evaluative motivators becomes most self-evident (p. 479). Thus, to determine whether the self-evaluative concerns suggested by social comparison theory motivate performance, one must ensure that people feel that theyRead MoreSelf-Evaluation and Assessment in Contemporary Leadership1397 Words   |  6 PagesSelf Evaluation and Assessment in Contemporary Leadership What makes a good leader? Is it the ability to execute tasks, or manage teams? There are seriously a myriad of answers to such questions. Yet, one notable answer is the ability to learn from ones mistakes and use effective self-evaluation and assessment in order to increase overall performance. Self assessment is a fundamental character found within effective leadership because it invokes continual learning, ensures positive rises inRead MoreObjective 317.1.6-03-06 and 317.1.6-08-10 Essay1074 Words   |  5 Pagesa sound system of performance evaluation. The current system addresses the friendliness of the employee, the orderliness of the employee’s workspace, and the attitude of the employee towards others. The current performance evaluation does not address the needs of the employee by properly preparing the employee for the goals of the company. The employee has not been given or been informed of the standards of the company. Standards or goals, when issued upfront, enhan ce performance, motivate, and inRead MoreThe Arizona Department Of Corrections Rating System945 Words   |  4 Pagesthe Arizona Department of Corrections rating system, and touching on the current evaluation process and discussing options to improve on the process. I work in the department of corrections and the evaluation system currently implemented is the managing, accountability, and performance (MAP). This system is far from perfect, and very susceptible to subjective evaluations. 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These can cause bias in the evaluation and shorten the validity because â€Å"the respect we hold for the inherent value of the individual leaves us distresses when we must take responsibilityRead MoreEvaluation Methodology For Employee Performance Appraisal Systems870 Words   |  4 PagesMethodology Research Methodology Used to Evaluate Employee Performance Appraisal Systems (n.d.) this is not a good source†¦ try to find a published, peer review source that can provide you with authors and publication dates reports that work performance appraisal systems assess the employee s effectiveness, work habits and also the quality of the work produced. The research methodology used to evaluate the accuracy and effectiveness of the appraisal instrument takes different forms and depends onRead MoreA Report On Tester Widget Inc. Performance Management1605 Words   |  7 PagesThe purpose of this document is to establish and institute policies, procedures, and guidelines, delegate authorities and assign responsibilities regarding Tester Widget Inc. performance management. Tester Widget Inc. utilizes the pay-for-performance program. The pay-for-performance program, otherwise known as a pay pool, is one of the latest programs used to find out how to increase workforce motivation, job satisfaction, and production (Ibironke, Adeo, Hungbo, 2011 413-417). The focus of this

Evaluation of Genetic Diversity of Golden Apple Snail, Pomacea Canaliculata Free Essays

ABSTRACT Genetics is a trend these days especially that, DNA barcoding has been developed. DNA barcoding is an important tool in categorizing the taxa of different species and it tells so much about the species’ traits, including genetic diversity. The Pomacea canaliculata was introduced in different parts of Asia and had been an invasive species and a pest in different ecosystems ever since the introduction. We will write a custom essay sample on Evaluation of Genetic Diversity of Golden Apple Snail, Pomacea Canaliculata or any similar topic only for you Order Now In understanding this species of snails, samples were collected, DNA’s were extracted, undergone PCR and electrophoresis, and was sequenced and analyzed. The analysis was qualitative In the Philippines while quantitative in China. In the Philippines, the cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI) genes was used and compared among the species collected and when it was sequenced, it showed differences due to localized gap, mismatch and non-correspondence of bases. And in China, the diversity was analyzed by means of Nei’s gene diversity, Shannon’s information index, percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB) an AMOVA anlysis. Both the quantitative and qualitative showed that there was diversification within and among the populations of these snails. INTRODUCTION Genetics is the study of the genes, and the heredity and variation of individuals. Understanding the genome, which is the complete set of chromosomes or the entire genotype of an individual, is important because it helps in the taxonomy of species, especially nowadays wherein advancements in science needs more specific information, and that basing on morphological features is not enough. Life is specified by genomes which contain all the biological information which is encoded in its deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and divided into units or the genes. The genes are the blueprint for life because it is the particulate determiner of hereditary traits. Hence, DNA barcoding became a trend for scientists and researchers for the understanding of the different variations in the traits of different organisms. The golden apple snails (Pomacea canaliculata) originated from the South America, Central America, the West Indies and the Southern USA (Pain 1972) and was spread in the past decades to the different parts of Southeast Asia, namely Philippines, China, Thailand, Cambodia, Hong Kong, Indonesia and Japan. The introduction of the P. canaliculata without prior studies caused damages to the different plants and it became an invasive species which resulted to becoming pests to humans and competitors to other local snails, example of which are those from the genus Pili. The P. canaliculata was observed to have different growth and reproduction in different parts of Asia, together with their external characteristics due to the different habitats and environmental conditions (Keawjam, 1986 and 1987), therefore there is the possibility to misidentify two sympatric species as one. On the other hand allopatric populations inhabiting different habitats may show ecomorphological variations and questionable species status and it was also suggested that the golden apple snails had high adaptability hence it was easier for them to form new populations (Dong et al. 2011). The understanding of the genomes of different species is a trend for scientists these days but the information about the different mollusks is still limited. The basic information on the number of species and/or population is of help for conservation programs (Carvalho and Hauser, 1994) and for building appropriate management schemes. In contribution, the studies aims are to evaluate the genetic diversity of the golden apple snail population in Asia, namely, Philippines and China via molecularly characterizing the P. canaliculata and to find different ways of analyzing the gathered data from the sequenced DNA of the said species. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Genetic diversity (Reed 2005) The significance of genetic diversity arose from two necessities: genetic diversity is required for populations to evolve in response to environmental changes and heterozygosity levels are linked directly to reduce population fitness via inbreeding depression. The amount of genetic variation a population contains is predicted to correlate with current fitness and, in the case of heritabilities (which can remain high or even increase despite severe reductions in population size) with evolutionary potential. This correlation between fitness and levels of genetic variation, however, may be weak or nonexistent due to the neutrality of molecular markers used in estimating heterozygosity, nonadditive genetic variation and the purging of deleterious alleles because of increased selection against homozygotes. There is a body of literature that suggests that allozyme heterozygosity is a good measure of population fitness and adaptive potential. Others caution though that such molecular genetic data generally reflect only a small portion of genome and thus may not be indicator of adaptive genetic differences. But molecular markers may be useful for assessing the extent of genetic drift. Moreover, deleterious alleles, in mutation-selection balance, are responsible for at least half of the genetic variation in fitness. Selection has the tendency to purge the population of the deleterious recessive alleles which in theory creates inbred populations with a higher fitness than their outbreed progenitor. In other words, inbred populations with less genetic diversity would have higher fitness if the population is not kept small enough for a long enough to allow the fixation of deleterious alleles to occur. Fitness and future adaptability are reduced in smaller populations of plants and animals due to drift and inbreeding depression. Commonly used surrogates for fitness such as heritabilities, heterozygosity, and population size, significantly correlate with fitness and explain 15-20 % of the variation in fitness. Correlations suggest that many populations have reduced fitness as a result of inbreeding depression and genetic drift. There is much fuss and concern thus, over genetic variation because of the fact that endangered species typically have lower levels of heterozygosity and the loss of adaptive genetic variation and inbreeding depression puts wildlife populations at an increased risk of extinction. Finally, this increase occurs as a result of the reduction of productive fitness because of inbreeding depression or due to the failure of tracking the change in abiotic and biotic environment of the population as a result of the loss of genetic variation through drift. DNA barcoding (Moritz Cicero 2004) At the very core, the purpose of DNA barcoding is for large scale screening of one or a few reference genes in order to assign unknown individuals to species and enhance discovery of new species. In the hope of developing a comprehensive database of sequences that will serve as a comparison tool to sequences from sampled individuals, proponents used DNA barcoding. There is, however, nothing new with DNA barcoding as it is an offshoot of the use molecular markers for the very same purpose except, in DNA barcoding, there is an increased scale and proposed standardization. The selection of one or more reference genes characterizes standardization, with regards to microbial community and in stimulating large scale phylogenetic analyses if of proven value, though whether or not one gene fits all remain to be a question. Presently, most methods of DNA barcoding are tree-based and can fall into two broadly defined classes. One class is the distance-based, wherein it is based on the degree of DNA sequence variation within and between species. This kind of approach converts DNA sequences into genetic distances and then uses these distances to establish identification schemes. It further defines a similarity threshold below which a DNA barcode is assigned to a known or a new species. There is also the mention by several authors of a â€Å"barcoding gap†, a distance-gap between intra- and interspecific sequences, for species identification. However, the distance-based approach seems to be ill suited as a general means for species identification and the discovery of new species. One reason is that substitution rates of mitochondrion DNA vary between and within species and between different groups of species. The varied substitution rates can result in broad overlaps of intra- and interspecific distances, and hinder the accurate assignment of query sequences. Another class which is the monophyly-based requires the recovery of species as discrete clades (monophyly) on a phylogenetic tree and is used to assign unknown taxa to a known or new species. Similarly, some issues complicate the use of monophyly in a barcoding framework. For example, the long-recognized problem of incomplete lineage sorting will yield gene genealogies that may differ in topology from locus to locus. The recently divergent taxa may not be reciprocally monophyletic due to lack of time needed to coalesce. In addition, the gene trees are not necessarily congruent with species trees, and the monophyly, while a discrete criterion is arbitrary with respect to taxonomic level. Moreover, there is a recently applied new technique that has been proposed as an alternative to tree-based approaches for DNA barcoding, the so called character-based DNA barcode method, which is based on the fundamental concept that members of a given taxonomic group share attributes that are absent from comparable groups. It is the kind of method that characterizes species through a unique combination of diagnostic characters rather than genetic distances. The four standard nucleotides (A,T,C,G) if found in fixed states in one species can be used as diagnostics for identifying that species. This way, species boundaries can be defined by a diagnostic set of characters which can be increased to any level of resolution by applying multiple genes. Presently, character-based DNA barcode method has been proved useful for species identification and discovery of several taxa. In the view that single-gene sequence should be the primary identifier of species, a contention arises that if that is the case then there’ll be a real need to connect different life history stages and increase the precision and efficiency of field studies involving diverse and difficult-to-identify taxa. Although the DNA barcoding community has put emphasis on the importance of large-scale sequence database within the existing framework and practice of systematics, it should be bore in mind that DNA barcoding is not the primary answer in resolving the tree of life. Furthermore, as much as the term â€Å"DNA barcoding† appealing, it implies, however, that each species has a fixed and invariant characteristic. But this kind of implication renders unrest to the minds of evolutionary biologists. In evaluating thus, the promise and pitfall of DNA barcoding, two areas of application should be distinguished: the molecular diagnostics of individuals relative to described taxa and DNA-led discovery of new species. And although there is little doubt that large-scale and standardized sequencing, when integrated with existing taxonomic practice, can contribute significantly to the challenges of identifying individuals and increasing the rate of discovering biological diversity as presented by this study, the general utility of DNA barcoding still requires further scrutiny. PCR (Moore 2005) In rapidly copying a selected template sequence from a DNA mixture in vitro, PCR offers a wide range of applications such as sequence detection and isolation for research, forensics and species identification through the PCR itself and in combination with other techniques. PCR’s new technique uses flourescent probes to monitor the amounted product at end of every cycle and PCR machines look for the cycle at which the can readily detect flourescence. PCR is also being used to monitor RNA through the addition of reverse transcriptase enzyme at the beginning to generate DNA template. In addition, there are now new applications of PCR like single nucleotide polymorphism detection and screening. Cytochrome Oxydase subunit 1 (COI) (Buhay 2009) COI plays a significant role in documenting biodiversity and remains to be the choice for phylogenetic and phylogeographic studies. COI is a mitochondrial protein-coding gene which is a widely accepted marker for molecular identification across diverse taxa. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have a relatively fast mutation rate, thus they result in significant differences between species. With respect to this, the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene with ~700bp was proposed to be a potential barcode or marker for molecular identification across various taxa. Furthermore, COI is a protein coding gene that has an open reading frame and in thecase of barcoding, COI can be highly divergent from the actual COI sequences which may cause major problems because species identification is based on sequence similarity. Pomacea canaliculata (Cowie 2002) The Pomacea canaliculata belongs to the family Ampullariidae. Its structure appears to have a slight dimorphism in shape of aperture and operculum. Females have broader mouth and concave operculum while convex in male. In terms of reproduction, oviposition often takes place at night or at early morning or evening about 24 hrs after copulation up to two weeks after mating (occurs three times per week) which occurs anytime of the day or night although there may be some diurnal rhythm. On each oviposition occasion a single clutch is laid of highly variable egg number. Moreover, the interval among successive ovipositions for p. canaliculata has been reported to be about five days and hatching generally takes place about two weeks after oviposition. The P. canaliculata breeds only during summer and grows into maturity in less than two months. P. canaliculata is said to be prolific and hence has rapid succession of generations which leads to rapid population expansion. They relatively inhabit still water and in water temperatures above 32 degree Celsius, it has been observed that the mortality of p. canaliculata is high. Whereas in low temperature p. canaliculata can survive 15-20 days at 0 degree Celsius, 2 days at -3 degree Celsius but only 6 hrs at -6 degree Celsius. And it is sufficiently tolerant of sea water to survive long enough to be carried by currents from one stream mouth to another, thereby expanding its distribution. P. canaliculata shows preferences among food plants. Its rate of growth has a direct correlation with its feeding on the preferred plant. Moreover, it is able to detect its food plants from some distance using chemical cues in the water. P. canaliculata, however, appears to be relatively generalist and indiscriminate that it is viewed to be particularly voracious compared to other Ampullariids. METHODOLOGY Sampling Snail samples were identified and collected from 2 countries in Asia, specifically in the Philippines and in China, where the P. canaliculata was introduced. In the Philippines; Los Banos (Dong et al. 011, p. 1778), 2 barangays in Tarlac (Brgy. Cabayaoasan, Paniqui and Brgy. Pance, Ramos) and Iloilo (Chichoco Patdu 2012, p13), 44 snail samples were collected. And in China, specifically from Yuyao and Taizhou in Zhejiang province, Fuzhou in Fujian province, Guangzhou in Guangdong province, Nanning in Guangxi province, Kunming in Yunnan province, wherein a total of 120 samples were identified with the conserved sequence by Ma tsukura et al. (2008) and Pan et al. (2009) and then was collected (Dong et al. 2011, p. 1778). The snails were then stored, either by wrapping in paper, freezing or preserving it in ethanol, and brought into the respective labs in each country for the next steps; DNA extraction, PCR, electrophoresis and sequencing. DNA extraction The two studies used the phenol-chloroform method (Bergallo et al. 2006) with an alternative of the Qiagen’s Dneasy extraction kit for China. The DNA concentration was determined spectrophotometrically and adjusted by a mini-gel method (Maniatis et al. , 1982) when the extracted DNA was enough, it was stored at 4oC to -20oC until needed. PCR and Electrophoresis The PCR method was basically done by choosing the right primers that will yield clearly reproduced bands and they tested the proper amounts and amplification effects of the components of PCR, which were the Mg2+, dNTP’s, DNA templates and polymerase, and the primers. After the mixture of the components and the DNA extracted, it was carried out in the thermocycler programmed for pre-denaturing at 94 °C for 3 min, followed by 26 cycles of 94 °C for 10-30s, 36-52 °C for 30-45s, extension of 65-72 °C for 60-90s, and the final extension for 5-7mins at 72 °C for final extension with 38-48 cycles. After which, the amplified products together with negative controls were run in electrophoresis to be separated and tested for contaminations, respectively. The products were then purified later on with the respective kits present in each lab. In the Philippines, the reaction was done with 2? L MgCl2, 5? L PCR buffer, 1? L dNTP, 2. 5 ? L of the primers, which were the LCO1490 and HCO2198, distilled H2O with 22. 75 ? L, 0. 25 Taq, and 10 ? L Q-buffer. The electrophoresis was done after the ethidium bromide staining (Maniatis et al. , 1982), analyzed through 1. % agarose gels and visualized under a transilluminator. In China, they made use of the ISSR-PCR analysis where they got four primers, which produced clearly reproduced bands, out of the 90 that was screened from the University of British Columbia’s primer set and the reactions were done with a volume of 20 ? l, containing 0. 2 mM of each dNTP, 1. 5 mM MgCl2, 0. 5 ? M primers, 1 U Taq polymerase and 10 ng DNA template, and also with the determination of the optimal reaction system of ISSR for P. canaliculata (Dong et al. 2011, p. 1779). The products’ sizes after the amplification was estimated using DNA marker DL2000 and then was run in electrophoresis, which was done on 6% polyacrylamide gels, visualized by silver staining and then photographed (Li et al. , 2009). Sequencing/ Data analysis Chichioco and Patdu (2012) sent the DNA samples to the First Base Laboratory in Singapore for sequencing and the results were sent back to the DNA barcoding Laboratory after a week. The COI sequences were aligned in the BLAST, specifically the STADEN package version 1. 5. 3 and Bioedit Sequence Alignment Editor version 7. 0. 9. 0. Aside from the sequences sampled, other sequences and their haplotypes from the GenBank were also compared and matched. In Dong’s (2011) research, he made use of the RAPD fragments by labeling them into binary matrices, used them to get the similarity index, Sxy = 2nxy / nx+ ny, where nx and ny represent the number of RAPD bands in individuals x and y, and nxy represents the number of shared bands between individuals, as stated by Nei and Li (1979), then averaging it across all the possible comparisons between individuals within a geographic sample to get the within samples similarity (Si). Between sample similarity corrected by within sample similarity Si and Sj of geographic samples i and j, respectively) is also calculated between pairs of individuals across samples i and j using the equation; S’ij = 1 + Sij – (Si and Sj)/2. Genetic distance between paired samples was then calculated as D’ij = 1- S’ij (Lynch, 1990). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the Philippines (Chichioco Patdu 2012, p. 18-31) The collected samples from Brgy. Cabayaoasan were found in the elevated parts of a rice paddy, specifically, it was a muddy substrate with decaying leaves from the rice plants and surrounding trees while those that was found in Brgy. Pance was in the muddy bottom of the shallow fish pond in the roots of water lilies and grasses. The samples from the two barangays in Tarlac and Iloilo had relatively different colors and sizes. Those that were collected from Brgy. Cabayaoasan had the largest size and they are colored black while those in Brgy. Pance had brown in color and still, those in Iloilo had very small sized specimens and some of the specimens can be mistaken as Pila conica snails if not examined properly. Primers affect the amplification success greatly, since according to Hajibabaei (2005) a 95% success is necessary for barcoding. The primers LCO1490 (SENSE) and HCO2198 are generally used for the amplification of forward and reverse fragments from COI genes. The DNA samples were subjected to the PCR and agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE), and they produced single discrete bands that suggest that the fragments were homogenous and start and end at the same point (Reece 2004). The bands that were brighter and distinct are more appropriate for sequencing because it means that the DNA fragments were well amplified. The best DNA’s were chosen and forwarded to the First Base Laboratory in Singapore for sequencing. At the return of the results, other sequenced DNA barcodes were also collected and was aligned and compared with the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) database. Fig 1. Alignment of the COI gene sequences of the Pomacea canaliculata (CPT1-5 from Brgy. Cabayaoasan, PRT 7,9,10 from Brgy. Pance, IICK IIPC1,3 from Iloilo) from the Philippines using Bioedit Sequence Alignment and ClustalW multiple Alignment (Chichioco Patdu 2012, p. 26) By aligning the sequenced data, it can be seen that there are both similarities and differences among the genetic make-up of the samples. The differences are due to localized gap, mismatch and non-correspondence of bases along the COI fragments as pointed out in fig. 2 Fig 2. Comparisons of the COI sequences of the P. canaliculata samples from 35bp- 120bp (Chichioco Patdu 2012, p. 28) As emphasized in fig. 2, on the 55bp-58bp, a sequence from CPT1 was observed having (5’-AATT-3’) while all the others have (5’-GGTA-3’). Even though this is a noticeable difference and could have been caused by mutation or variation, the difference is still low enough and less that 1% difference to be considered significant. But on the other hand, the PCa1 sample had 36 different base pairs compared with the others, which was 5. 5% difference and is high enough and can be considered significant since it is ;4% divergent(Meyer and Paulay 2005). Then with a ~98% confidence, it could be said that PCa1 is from an independent evolutionary lineage and might indicate a divergence within or outside its population or might have occurred due to relationships and interactions among the other species. The introduction of the P. canaliculata to different places may have an effect on its intra- and interpopulation and might be why it has various genetic sequences although it goes against the theory that introduced species becomes a founding population in a new habitat thus they have a limited gene pool and as a consequence genetic drift, which removes variability since it affects all genes, and bottleneck might occur, which reduces the new species to have a reduced genetic diversity. To observe the genetic variability, the sequences collected were compared with those from GenBank with the use of the BLAST software. As a result from 81 COI barcodes and 55 haplotypes, the samples collected showed 99% and 100% similarities with the different haplotypes thus it showed that the species has a high diversity within the populations. The phylogeography within and among the species does not apply on the P. analiculata since intra- and interpopulation diversity was observed which was shown by the multiple introduction throughout the Philippines, hence the different times of the introduction contributed more to its diversity and it coincides with the migrant pool model that says that the introduced population acquires more genetic variability because of the multiple sources of genetically divergent populations as compared to that of the local species (Slatkin 1997, Sakal et al 2001). In China (Dong et al 2010) The chosen primers an average of 124. bands, since they generated a total of 498 bands, which ranged from 150-2500bp and qualifies them for barcoding, as seen in table 1. Among the 140 individuals, 435 bands were polymorphic which was different for each primer. In table 2, Nei’s gene diversity (H) varied between 0. 2612 and 0. 3340, with an average of 0. 3044, and arranged in a descending order the populations, LB ; KM ; NN ; FZ ; TZ ; GZ ; YY while the Shannon’s information index (I) ranged from 0. 3910 to 0. 4856, with an average of 0. 4499. At the species level, the values of Nei’s and Shannon’s showed the same trend as that of PPB. AMOVA analysis showed that there are highly significant (P ; 0. 001) genetic differences among the seven populations of P. canaliculata. The genetic diversity was mostly due to the differences within the population (92. 76%) while the rest was due to among populations. The analysis tells the same as that of the Nei’s and Shannon’s information, which says that there was a relatively high level of genetic differentiation among populations. CONCLUSION Genetics of different species are studied by means of DNA barcoding, mostly of the COI gene in the mitochondria, to know the taxon of a species and to understand their trends and characteristics not only morphologically but also genetically. The diversity of a species can also be tested by means of DNA barcoding as seen in the study of the Pomacea canaliculata. The P. canaliculata was introduced in Asia for agricultural purposes and was seen for its benefits but not its drawbacks, which later on resulted to it being invasive and a pest for both humans and other species. To understand the P. canaliculata further, its diversity was studied by means of DNA barcoding and was analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively in the Philippines and China, respectively. Both the analysis showed the same outcome, wherein the results showed high levels of genetic diversity among populations. Because invasive species tends to give a negative feedback to those species in the local area, it is important to understand these alien species and to know how diverse they are so that proper management of these species could be done. REFERENCES Barker, G. M. 2002. Molluscs as Crop Pests. UK: CABI Publishing. (pp. 147-182) Buhay, Jennifer E. 2009. ‘‘COI-like’’ Sequences are Becoming Problematic in Molecular Systematic and DNA Barcoding Studies. Journal of Crustacean Biology 29(1): 96–110 Burns, George W. , Bottino, Paul J. 1989. The science of genetics 6th ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. Chichioco, Monique Faye Patdu, Edel Marie. 2012. DNA barcoding of Pomacea canaliculata and Pila conica using cytochrome c oxidase 1 (CO1) and small subunit (ssu) ribosomal (r) RNA barcodes (Undergraduate thesis). Main Library, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio City. Cowie, R. H. 2002. Apple snails (Ampullariidae) as agricultural pests: their biology, impacts and management. In: Molluscs as Crop Pests (ed. G. M. Barker), p. 145-192. CABI Publishing, Wallingford. Dodson, Edward O. 1956. Genetics: The Modern Science of Heredity. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company. Dong, S. , Shentu, X. , Pan, Y. , Yu, X. , Wang, H. 2011. Evaluation of genetic diversity in the golden apple snail, Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck), from different geographical populations in China by inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR). African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 10(10), 1777-1783. Mendoza, Monica P Serra, Karen Mae S. 2011. Mitochondrial DNA barcoding of Pomacea canaliculata and Pila conica (Undergraduate thesis). Main Library, University of the Philippines Baguio, Baguio City. Moore, Pete. 2005. PCR: Replicating Success. Nature 435, 235-238. Moritz, C. , and Cicero,C.. 2004. DNA barcoding: promise and pitfalls. PLoS Biology 2(10), e354, 1529-1531. Reed, D. H. , Frankham, R. 2005. Correlation between Fitness and Genetic Diversity. Conservation Biology. Conservation Biology 17(1), 230-237. Wang, Xu-Mei. 2010. Optimization of DNA isolation, ISSR-PCR system and primers screening of genuine species of rhubarb, an important herbal medicine in China. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4(10), 904-908. Zou, S. , Li, Q. , Kong, L. , Yu, H. , Zheng, X. 2011. Comparing the Usefulness of Distance, Monophyly and Character-Based DNA Barcoding Methods in Species Identification: A Case Study of Neogastropoda. PLoS ONE 4(10), e26619. How to cite Evaluation of Genetic Diversity of Golden Apple Snail, Pomacea Canaliculata, Essay examples

Whitman Versus Frost Structure of Modern Poetry Essay Example

Whitman Versus Frost: Structure of Modern Poetry Essay Structure is a major consideration in poetry and also represents an issue that many critics and poets argue about.For some, a poem is not a real poem without some kind of formal structure.To many of these people, a poet writing without structure should not be considered a true poet.For others, structure is viewed as limiting a poem.The question then, is who is right in this argument.Is structure necessary to a poemOr does structure just get in the way of good poetryA consideration of two major poets will show that both unstructured and structured forms are not only acceptable, but capable of resulting in poets that are considered among the best ever.These two poets are Walt Whitman and Robert Frost, each poet on the opposite of the argument and yet both poets using their opposite approach to create effective poetry.This leads to the final answer, which is that the important point is not whether or not structure is used, but whether the poet uses either structure or the absence of str ucture Leaves of Grass was Whitmansfirst published book and was noticed by critics mainly because Whitman rejected standard verse form.In saying that the work was noticed, it is important to emphasize that the work was largely criticized for this aspect of it.One source describes the criticism as being because of its innovation in verse form that it, the use of free verse in long rhythmical lines with a natural, organic structure (The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia).At the same time, it is important to note that the criticism that occurred should not be seen as a sign of Whitmans failure.Instead, it is best seen as a sign of Whitmans ability to question the methods of the time and attempt something new. The other important point about Whitmans free verse structure is that it was not something created by accident.Instead, Whitman made a considere